Describes key creation, signing and verification.

In this chapter, we will see how to use Sequoia's [low-level API] to
generate an OpenPGP key, and use it to sign and verify some data.  We
will construct this program from top to bottom, concatenating the
fragments yields the [`openpgp/examples/generate-sign-verify.rs`].

[low-level API]: ../../sequoia_openpgp/index.html
[`openpgp/examples/generate-sign-verify.rs`]: https://gitlab.com/sequoia-pgp/sequoia/blob/master/openpgp/examples/generate-sign-verify.rs

```rust
use std::io::{self, Write};

extern crate failure;
extern crate sequoia_openpgp as openpgp;
use openpgp::serialize::stream::*;
use openpgp::packet::prelude::*;
use openpgp::parse::stream::*;

const MESSAGE: &'static str = "дружба";

fn main() {
    // Generate a key.
    let key = generate().unwrap();

    // Sign the message.
    let mut signed_message = Vec::new();
    sign(&mut signed_message, MESSAGE, &key).unwrap();

    // Verify the message.
    let mut plaintext = Vec::new();
    verify(&mut plaintext, &signed_message, &key).unwrap();

    assert_eq!(MESSAGE.as_bytes(), &plaintext[..]);
}
#
# /// Generates an signing-capable key.
# fn generate() -> openpgp::Result<openpgp::TPK> {
#     let (tpk, _revocation) = openpgp::tpk::TPKBuilder::new()
#         .add_userid("someone@example.org")
#         .add_signing_subkey()
#         .generate()?;
#
#     // Save the revocation certificate somewhere.
#
#     Ok(tpk)
# }
#
# /// Signs the given message.
# fn sign(sink: &mut Write, plaintext: &str, tsk: &openpgp::TPK)
#            -> openpgp::Result<()> {
#     // Get the keypair to do the signing from the TPK.
#     let key : key::UnspecifiedSecret
#         = tsk.keys_valid().signing_capable().nth(0).unwrap().2.clone().into();
#     let mut keypair = key.into_keypair()?;
#
#     // Start streaming an OpenPGP message.
#     let message = Message::new(sink);
#
#     // We want to sign a literal data packet.
#     let signer = Signer::new(message, vec![&mut keypair], None)?;
#
#     // Emit a literal data packet.
#     let mut literal_writer = LiteralWriter::new(
#         signer, openpgp::constants::DataFormat::Binary, None, None)?;
#
#     // Sign the data.
#     literal_writer.write_all(plaintext.as_bytes())?;
#
#     // Finalize the OpenPGP message to make sure that all data is
#     // written.
#     literal_writer.finalize()?;
#
#     Ok(())
# }
#
# /// Verifies the given message.
# fn verify(sink: &mut Write, signed_message: &[u8], sender: &openpgp::TPK)
#           -> openpgp::Result<()> {
#     // Make a helper that that feeds the sender's public key to the
#     // verifier.
#     let helper = Helper {
#         tpk: sender,
#     };
#
#     // Now, create a verifier with a helper using the given TPKs.
#     let mut verifier = Verifier::from_bytes(signed_message, helper, None)?;
#
#     // Verify the data.
#     io::copy(&mut verifier, sink)?;
#
#     Ok(())
# }
#
# struct Helper<'a> {
#     tpk: &'a openpgp::TPK,
# }
#
# impl<'a> VerificationHelper for Helper<'a> {
#     fn get_public_keys(&mut self, _ids: &[openpgp::KeyID])
#                        -> openpgp::Result<Vec<openpgp::TPK>> {
#         // Return public keys for signature verification here.
#         Ok(vec![self.tpk.clone()])
#     }
#
#     fn check(&mut self, structure: &MessageStructure)
#              -> openpgp::Result<()> {
#         // In this function, we implement our signature verification
#         // policy.
#
#         let mut good = false;
#         for (i, layer) in structure.iter().enumerate() {
#             match (i, layer) {
#                 // First, we are interested in signatures over the
#                 // data, i.e. level 0 signatures.
#                 (0, MessageLayer::SignatureGroup { ref results }) => {
#                     // Finally, given a VerificationResult, which only says
#                     // whether the signature checks out mathematically, we apply
#                     // our policy.
#                     match results.get(0) {
#                         Some(VerificationResult::GoodChecksum(..)) =>
#                             good = true,
#                         Some(VerificationResult::MissingKey(_)) =>
#                             return Err(failure::err_msg(
#                                 "Missing key to verify signature")),
#                         Some(VerificationResult::BadChecksum(_)) =>
#                             return Err(failure::err_msg("Bad signature")),
#                         None =>
#                             return Err(failure::err_msg("No signature")),
#                     }
#                 },
#                 _ => return Err(failure::err_msg(
#                     "Unexpected message structure")),
#             }
#         }
#
#         if good {
#             Ok(()) // Good signature.
#         } else {
#             Err(failure::err_msg("Signature verification failed"))
#         }
#     }
# }
```

# Key generation

First, we need to generate a new key.  This key shall have one user
id, and one signing-capable subkey.  We use the [`TPKBuilder`] to
create it:

[`TPKBuilder`]: ../../sequoia_openpgp/tpk/struct.TPKBuilder.html

```rust
# use std::io::{self, Write};
#
# extern crate failure;
# extern crate sequoia_openpgp as openpgp;
# use openpgp::serialize::stream::*;
# use openpgp::parse::stream::*;
# use openpgp::packet::prelude::*;
#
# const MESSAGE: &'static str = "дружба";
#
# fn main() {
#     // Generate a key.
#     let key = generate().unwrap();
#
#     // Sign the message.
#     let mut signed_message = Vec::new();
#     sign(&mut signed_message, MESSAGE, &key).unwrap();
#
#     // Verify the message.
#     let mut plaintext = Vec::new();
#     verify(&mut plaintext, &signed_message, &key).unwrap();
#
#     assert_eq!(MESSAGE.as_bytes(), &plaintext[..]);
# }
#
/// Generates an signing-capable key.
fn generate() -> openpgp::Result<openpgp::TPK> {
    let (tpk, _revocation) = openpgp::tpk::TPKBuilder::new()
        .add_userid("someone@example.org")
        .add_signing_subkey()
        .generate()?;

    // Save the revocation certificate somewhere.

    Ok(tpk)
}
#
# /// Signs the given message.
# fn sign(sink: &mut Write, plaintext: &str, tsk: &openpgp::TPK)
#            -> openpgp::Result<()> {
#     // Get the keypair to do the signing from the TPK.
#     let key : key::UnspecifiedSecret
#         = tsk.keys_valid().signing_capable().nth(0).unwrap().2.clone().into();
#     let mut keypair = key.into_keypair()?;
#
#     // Start streaming an OpenPGP message.
#     let message = Message::new(sink);
#
#     // We want to sign a literal data packet.
#     let signer = Signer::new(message, vec![&mut keypair], None)?;
#
#     // Emit a literal data packet.
#     let mut literal_writer = LiteralWriter::new(
#         signer, openpgp::constants::DataFormat::Binary, None, None)?;
#
#     // Sign the data.
#     literal_writer.write_all(plaintext.as_bytes())?;
#
#     // Finalize the OpenPGP message to make sure that all data is
#     // written.
#     literal_writer.finalize()?;
#
#     Ok(())
# }
#
# /// Verifies the given message.
# fn verify(sink: &mut Write, signed_message: &[u8], sender: &openpgp::TPK)
#           -> openpgp::Result<()> {
#     // Make a helper that that feeds the sender's public key to the
#     // verifier.
#     let helper = Helper {
#         tpk: sender,
#     };
#
#     // Now, create a verifier with a helper using the given TPKs.
#     let mut verifier = Verifier::from_bytes(signed_message, helper, None)?;
#
#     // Verify the data.
#     io::copy(&mut verifier, sink)?;
#
#     Ok(())
# }
#
# struct Helper<'a> {
#     tpk: &'a openpgp::TPK,
# }
#
# impl<'a> VerificationHelper for Helper<'a> {
#     fn get_public_keys(&mut self, _ids: &[openpgp::KeyID])
#                        -> openpgp::Result<Vec<openpgp::TPK>> {
#         // Return public keys for signature verification here.
#         Ok(vec![self.tpk.clone()])
#     }
#
#     fn check(&mut self, structure: &MessageStructure)
#              -> openpgp::Result<()> {
#         // In this function, we implement our signature verification
#         // policy.
#
#         let mut good = false;
#         for (i, layer) in structure.iter().enumerate() {
#             match (i, layer) {
#                 // First, we are interested in signatures over the
#                 // data, i.e. level 0 signatures.
#                 (0, MessageLayer::SignatureGroup { ref results }) => {
#                     // Finally, given a VerificationResult, which only says
#                     // whether the signature checks out mathematically, we apply
#                     // our policy.
#                     match results.get(0) {
#                         Some(VerificationResult::GoodChecksum(..)) =>
#                             good = true,
#                         Some(VerificationResult::MissingKey(_)) =>
#                             return Err(failure::err_msg(
#                                 "Missing key to verify signature")),
#                         Some(VerificationResult::BadChecksum(_)) =>
#                             return Err(failure::err_msg("Bad signature")),
#                         None =>
#                             return Err(failure::err_msg("No signature")),
#                     }
#                 },
#                 _ => return Err(failure::err_msg(
#                     "Unexpected message structure")),
#             }
#         }
#
#         if good {
#             Ok(()) // Good signature.
#         } else {
#             Err(failure::err_msg("Signature verification failed"))
#         }
#     }
# }
```

# Signing

To sign a message, we first compose a writer stack corresponding to
the desired output format and packet structure.  The resulting object
implements [`io::Write`], and we simply write the plaintext to it.

[`io::Write`]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/io/trait.Write.html

```rust
# use std::io::{self, Write};
#
# extern crate failure;
# extern crate sequoia_openpgp as openpgp;
# use openpgp::serialize::stream::*;
# use openpgp::packet::prelude::*;
# use openpgp::parse::stream::*;
#
# const MESSAGE: &'static str = "дружба";
#
# fn main() {
#     // Generate a key.
#     let key = generate().unwrap();
#
#     // Sign the message.
#     let mut signed_message = Vec::new();
#     sign(&mut signed_message, MESSAGE, &key).unwrap();
#
#     // Verify the message.
#     let mut plaintext = Vec::new();
#     verify(&mut plaintext, &signed_message, &key).unwrap();
#
#     assert_eq!(MESSAGE.as_bytes(), &plaintext[..]);
# }
#
# /// Generates an signing-capable key.
# fn generate() -> openpgp::Result<openpgp::TPK> {
#     let (tpk, _revocation) = openpgp::tpk::TPKBuilder::new()
#         .add_userid("someone@example.org")
#         .add_signing_subkey()
#         .generate()?;
#
#     // Save the revocation certificate somewhere.
#
#     Ok(tpk)
# }
#
/// Signs the given message.
fn sign(sink: &mut Write, plaintext: &str, tsk: &openpgp::TPK)
           -> openpgp::Result<()> {
    // Get the keypair to do the signing from the TPK.
    let key : key::UnspecifiedSecret
        = tsk.keys_valid().signing_capable().nth(0).unwrap().2.clone().into();
    let mut keypair = key.into_keypair()?;

    // Start streaming an OpenPGP message.
    let message = Message::new(sink);

    // We want to sign a literal data packet.
    let signer = Signer::new(message, vec![&mut keypair], None)?;

    // Emit a literal data packet.
    let mut literal_writer = LiteralWriter::new(
        signer, openpgp::constants::DataFormat::Binary, None, None)?;

    // Sign the data.
    literal_writer.write_all(plaintext.as_bytes())?;

    // Finalize the OpenPGP message to make sure that all data is
    // written.
    literal_writer.finalize()?;

    Ok(())
}
#
# /// Verifies the given message.
# fn verify(sink: &mut Write, signed_message: &[u8], sender: &openpgp::TPK)
#           -> openpgp::Result<()> {
#     // Make a helper that that feeds the sender's public key to the
#     // verifier.
#     let helper = Helper {
#         tpk: sender,
#     };
#
#     // Now, create a verifier with a helper using the given TPKs.
#     let mut verifier = Verifier::from_bytes(signed_message, helper, None)?;
#
#     // Verify the data.
#     io::copy(&mut verifier, sink)?;
#
#     Ok(())
# }
#
# struct Helper<'a> {
#     tpk: &'a openpgp::TPK,
# }
#
# impl<'a> VerificationHelper for Helper<'a> {
#     fn get_public_keys(&mut self, _ids: &[openpgp::KeyID])
#                        -> openpgp::Result<Vec<openpgp::TPK>> {
#         // Return public keys for signature verification here.
#         Ok(vec![self.tpk.clone()])
#     }
#
#     fn check(&mut self, structure: &MessageStructure)
#              -> openpgp::Result<()> {
#         // In this function, we implement our signature verification
#         // policy.
#
#         let mut good = false;
#         for (i, layer) in structure.iter().enumerate() {
#             match (i, layer) {
#                 // First, we are interested in signatures over the
#                 // data, i.e. level 0 signatures.
#                 (0, MessageLayer::SignatureGroup { ref results }) => {
#                     // Finally, given a VerificationResult, which only says
#                     // whether the signature checks out mathematically, we apply
#                     // our policy.
#                     match results.get(0) {
#                         Some(VerificationResult::GoodChecksum(..)) =>
#                             good = true,
#                         Some(VerificationResult::MissingKey(_)) =>
#                             return Err(failure::err_msg(
#                                 "Missing key to verify signature")),
#                         Some(VerificationResult::BadChecksum(_)) =>
#                             return Err(failure::err_msg("Bad signature")),
#                         None =>
#                             return Err(failure::err_msg("No signature")),
#                     }
#                 },
#                 _ => return Err(failure::err_msg(
#                     "Unexpected message structure")),
#             }
#         }
#
#         if good {
#             Ok(()) // Good signature.
#         } else {
#             Err(failure::err_msg("Signature verification failed"))
#         }
#     }
# }
```

# Verification

Verification is more difficult than signing.  When we sign, we control
the packet structure being generated.  However, when we verify, the
control flow is determined by the message being processed.

To use Sequoia's low-level streaming verifier, we need to provide an
object that implements [`VerificationHelper`].  This object provides
public and for the signature verification, and implements the
signature verification policy.

[`VerificationHelper`]: ../../sequoia_openpgp/parse/stream/trait.VerificationHelper.html

To decrypt messages, we create a [`Verifier`] with our helper.
Verified data can be read from this using [`io::Read`].

[`Verifier`]: ../../sequoia_openpgp/parse/stream/struct.Verifier.html
[`io::Read`]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/io/trait.Read.html

```rust
# use std::io::{self, Write};
# 
# extern crate failure;
# extern crate sequoia_openpgp as openpgp;
# use openpgp::serialize::stream::*;
# use openpgp::packet::prelude::*;
# use openpgp::parse::stream::*;
# 
# const MESSAGE: &'static str = "дружба";
# 
# fn main() {
#     // Generate a key.
#     let key = generate().unwrap();
# 
#     // Sign the message.
#     let mut signed_message = Vec::new();
#     sign(&mut signed_message, MESSAGE, &key).unwrap();
# 
#     // Verify the message.
#     let mut plaintext = Vec::new();
#     verify(&mut plaintext, &signed_message, &key).unwrap();
# 
#     assert_eq!(MESSAGE.as_bytes(), &plaintext[..]);
# }
# 
# /// Generates an signing-capable key.
# fn generate() -> openpgp::Result<openpgp::TPK> {
#     let (tpk, _revocation) = openpgp::tpk::TPKBuilder::new()
#         .add_userid("someone@example.org")
#         .add_signing_subkey()
#         .generate()?;
# 
#     // Save the revocation certificate somewhere.
# 
#     Ok(tpk)
# }
# 
# /// Signs the given message.
# fn sign(sink: &mut Write, plaintext: &str, tsk: &openpgp::TPK)
#            -> openpgp::Result<()> {
#     // Get the keypair to do the signing from the TPK.
#     let key : key::UnspecifiedSecret
#         = tsk.keys_valid().signing_capable().nth(0).unwrap().2.clone().into();
#     let mut keypair = key.into_keypair()?;
# 
#     // Start streaming an OpenPGP message.
#     let message = Message::new(sink);
# 
#     // We want to sign a literal data packet.
#     let signer = Signer::new(message, vec![&mut keypair], None)?;
# 
#     // Emit a literal data packet.
#     let mut literal_writer = LiteralWriter::new(
#         signer, openpgp::constants::DataFormat::Binary, None, None)?;
# 
#     // Sign the data.
#     literal_writer.write_all(plaintext.as_bytes())?;
# 
#     // Finalize the OpenPGP message to make sure that all data is
#     // written.
#     literal_writer.finalize()?;
# 
#     Ok(())
# }
# 
/// Verifies the given message.
fn verify(sink: &mut Write, signed_message: &[u8], sender: &openpgp::TPK)
          -> openpgp::Result<()> {
    // Make a helper that that feeds the sender's public key to the
    // verifier.
    let helper = Helper {
        tpk: sender,
    };

    // Now, create a verifier with a helper using the given TPKs.
    let mut verifier = Verifier::from_bytes(signed_message, helper, None)?;

    // Verify the data.
    io::copy(&mut verifier, sink)?;

    Ok(())
}

struct Helper<'a> {
    tpk: &'a openpgp::TPK,
}

impl<'a> VerificationHelper for Helper<'a> {
    fn get_public_keys(&mut self, _ids: &[openpgp::KeyID])
                       -> openpgp::Result<Vec<openpgp::TPK>> {
        // Return public keys for signature verification here.
        Ok(vec![self.tpk.clone()])
    }

    fn check(&mut self, structure: &MessageStructure)
             -> openpgp::Result<()> {
        // In this function, we implement our signature verification
        // policy.

        let mut good = false;
        for (i, layer) in structure.iter().enumerate() {
            match (i, layer) {
                // First, we are interested in signatures over the
                // data, i.e. level 0 signatures.
                (0, MessageLayer::SignatureGroup { ref results }) => {
                    // Finally, given a VerificationResult, which only says
                    // whether the signature checks out mathematically, we apply
                    // our policy.
                    match results.get(0) {
                        Some(VerificationResult::GoodChecksum(..)) =>
                            good = true,
                        Some(VerificationResult::MissingKey(_)) =>
                            return Err(failure::err_msg(
                                "Missing key to verify signature")),
                        Some(VerificationResult::BadChecksum(_)) =>
                            return Err(failure::err_msg("Bad signature")),
                        None =>
                            return Err(failure::err_msg("No signature")),
                    }
                },
                _ => return Err(failure::err_msg(
                    "Unexpected message structure")),
            }
        }

        if good {
            Ok(()) // Good signature.
        } else {
            Err(failure::err_msg("Signature verification failed"))
        }
    }
}
```

# Further reading

For more examples on how to read a key from a file, and then either
create a signed message, or a detached signature, see
[`openpgp/examples/sign.rs`] and
[`openpgp/examples/sign-detached.rs`].

[`openpgp/examples/sign.rs`]: https://gitlab.com/sequoia-pgp/sequoia/blob/master/openpgp/examples/sign.rs
[`openpgp/examples/sign-detached.rs`]: https://gitlab.com/sequoia-pgp/sequoia/blob/master/openpgp/examples/sign-detached.rs
