[/
    Copyright (c) 2016-2019 Vinnie Falco (vinnie dot falco at gmail dot com)

    Distributed under the Boost Software License, Version 1.0. (See accompanying
    file LICENSE_1_0.txt or copy at http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt)

    Official repository: https://github.com/boostorg/beast
]

[section:asio_refresher Refresher __new__]

To use Beast effectively, a prior understanding of Networking is required.
This section reviews these concepts as a reminder and guide for further
learning.

A
[@https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_network ['network]]
allows programs located anywhere to exchange information after opting-in
to communications by establishing a
[@https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_link ['connection]].
Data may be reliably transferred across a connection in both directions
([@https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duplex_(telecommunications) ['full-duplex]])
with bytes arriving in the same order they were sent. These connections, along
with the objects and types used to represent them, are collectively termed
[link beast.concepts.streams ['streams]]. The computer or device attached
to the network is called a
[@https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Host_(network) ['host]], and the
program on the other end of an established connection is called a
[@https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peer-to-peer ['peer]].

The
[@https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet ['internet]]
is a global network of interconnected computers that use a variety of
standardized communication protocols to exchange information. The most
popular protocol is
[@https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_Control_Protocol ['TCP/IP]],
which this library relies on exclusively. The protocol takes care of the
low level details so that applications see a
['stream], which is the reliable, full-duplex connection carrying the ordered
set of bytes described above. A
[@https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Server_(computing) ['server]]
is a powerful, always-on host at a well-known network name or network address
which provides data services. A
[@https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Client_(computing) ['client]]
is a transient peer which connects to a server to exchange data, and goes
offline.

A vendor supplies a program called a
[@https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Device_driver ['device driver]],
enabling networking hardware such as an
[@https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_interface_controller ['ethernet adaptor]]
to talk to the operating system. This in turn permits running programs to
interact with networking using various flavors of interfaces such as
[@https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkeley_sockets ['Berkeley sockets]] or
[@https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winsock ['Windows Sockets 2]] ("Winsock").

Networking in C++, represented by __Asio__,
[@https://think-async.com/Asio/ Asio], and
__NetTS__, provides a layer of abstraction to interact portably with the
operating system facilities for not just networking but general
[@https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Input/output ['input/output]] ("I/O").

[/-----------------------------------------------------------------------------]

[heading Buffers]

A
[@https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_buffer ['buffer]]
holds a contiguous sequence of bytes used when performing I/O.
The types
[@boost:/doc/html/boost_asio/reference/const_buffer.html `net::const_buffer`]
and
[@boost:/doc/html/boost_asio/reference/mutable_buffer.html `net::mutable_buffer`]
represent these memory regions as type-safe pointer/size pairs:

[code_core_1_refresher_1s]

[tip
    `const_buffer` and `mutable_buffer` are preferred over `std::span<byte>`
    and `span<byte const>` because
    [@https://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/container/span `std::span`]
    does too much. It not only
    type-erases the original pointer but also recasts it to a pointer-to-byte.
    The operating system doesn't care about this, but if a user wants to send
    and receive an array of some other type, presenting it as an array of bytes
    which supports bitwise operations is unnecessary. Custom buffer types also
    enable implementations to provide targeted features such as
    [@boost:/doc/html/boost_asio/overview/core/buffers.html#boost_asio.overview.core.buffers.buffer_debugging ['buffer debugging]]
    without changing the more general vocabulary types.
]

The concepts
__ConstBufferSequence__ and __MutableBufferSequence__ describe bidirectional
ranges whose value type is convertible to `const_buffer` and
`mutable_buffer` respectively. These sequences allow transacting with
multiple buffers in a single function call, a technique called
[@https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vectored_I/O ['scatter/gather I/O]].
Buffers and buffer sequences are non-owning; copies produce shallow references
and not duplicates of the underlying memory. Each of these statements declares
a buffer sequence:

[code_core_1_refresher_2s]

The functions
[@boost:/doc/html/boost_asio/reference/buffer_size.html `net::buffer_size`] and
[@boost:/doc/html/boost_asio/reference/buffer_copy.html `net::buffer_copy`]
determine the total number of bytes in a buffer sequence, and transfer some
or all of bytes from one buffer sequence to another respectively. The
function `buffer_size` is a customization point: user defined overloads
in foreign namespaces are possible, and callers should invoke `buffer_size`
without namespace qualification. The functions
[@boost:/doc/html/boost_asio/reference/buffer_sequence_begin.html `net::buffer_sequence_begin`] and
[@boost:/doc/html/boost_asio/reference/buffer_sequence_end.html `net::buffer_sequence_end`]
are used to obtain a pair of iterators for traversing the sequence.
Beast provides a set of buffer sequence types and algorithms such as
[link beast.ref.boost__beast__buffers_cat `buffers_cat`],
[link beast.ref.boost__beast__buffers_front `buffers_front`],
[link beast.ref.boost__beast__buffers_prefix `buffers_prefix`],
[link beast.ref.boost__beast__buffers_range `buffers_range`], and
[link beast.ref.boost__beast__buffers_suffix `buffers_suffix`].
This example returns the bytes in a buffer sequence as a string:

[code_core_1_refresher_1]

The __DynamicBuffer__ concept defines a resizable buffer sequence interface.
Algorithms may be expressed in terms of dynamic buffers when the memory
requirements are not known ahead of time, for example when reading an
HTTP message from a stream.
Beast provides a well-rounded collection of dynamic buffer types such as
[link beast.ref.boost__beast__buffers_adaptor `buffers_adaptor`],
[link beast.ref.boost__beast__flat_buffer `flat_buffer`],
[link beast.ref.boost__beast__multi_buffer `multi_buffer`], and
[link beast.ref.boost__beast__static_buffer `static_buffer`].
The following function reads data from a
[link beast.ref.boost__beast__tcp_stream `tcp_stream`]
into a dynamic buffer until it encountering a newline character, using
[@boost:/doc/html/boost_asio/reference/buffers_iterator.html `net::buffers_iterator`]
to treat the contents of the buffer as a range of characters:

[code_core_1_refresher_2]



[/-----------------------------------------------------------------------------]

[heading Synchronous I/O]

Synchronous input and output is accomplished through blocking function
calls that return with the result of the operation. Such operations typically
cannot be canceled and do not have a method for setting a timeout. The
__SyncReadStream__ and __SyncWriteStream__ concepts define requirements for
['synchronous streams]:
a portable I/O abstraction that transfers data using buffer sequences to
represent bytes and either `error_code` or an exception to report any
failures.
[@boost:/doc/html/boost_asio/reference/basic_stream_socket.html ['net::basic_stream_socket]]
is a synchronous stream commonly used to form TCP/IP connections.
User-defined types which meet the requirements are possible:

[code_core_1_refresher_3]

A
['synchronous stream algorithm]
is written as a function template accepting a stream object meeting the
named requirements for synchronous reading, writing, or both. This example
shows an algorithm which writes text and uses exceptions to indicate errors:

[code_core_1_refresher_4]

The same algorithm may be expressed using error codes instead of exceptions:

[code_core_1_refresher_5]

[/-----------------------------------------------------------------------------]

[heading Asynchronous I/O]

An asynchronous operation begins with a call to an
[@boost:/doc/html/boost_asio/reference/asynchronous_operations.html ['initiating function]],
which starts the operation and returns to the caller immediately. This
['outstanding]
asynchronous operation proceeds concurrently without blocking the caller.
When the externally observable side effects are fully established, a movable
function object known as a
[@boost:/doc/html/boost_asio/reference/CompletionHandler.html ['completion handler]]
provided in the initiating function call is queued for execution with the
results, which may include the error code and other specific information.
An asynchronous operation is said to be
['completed]
after the completion handler is queued. The code that follows shows how some
text may be written to a socket asynchronously, invoking a lambda when the
operation is complete:

[code_core_1_refresher_3s]

Every completion handler (also referred to as a
[@https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuation ['continuation]])
has both an
[@boost:/doc/html/boost_asio/overview/core/allocation.html ['associated allocator]]
returned by
[@boost:/doc/html/boost_asio/reference/get_associated_allocator.html `net::get_associated_allocator`],
and an
[@boost:/doc/html/boost_asio/reference/associated_executor.html ['associated executor]]
returned by
[@boost:/doc/html/boost_asio/reference/get_associated_executor.html `net::get_associated_executor`].
These associations may be specified intrusively:

[code_core_1_refresher_6]

Or these associations may be specified non-intrusively, by specializing
the class templates
[@boost:/doc/html/boost_asio/reference/associated_allocator.html `net::associated_allocator`]
and
[@boost:/doc/html/boost_asio/reference/associated_executor.html `net::associated_executor`]:

[code_core_1_refresher_7]

The function
[@boost:/doc/html/boost_asio/reference/bind_executor.html `net::bind_executor`]
may be used when the caller wants to change the executor of a completion
handler.

The allocator is used by the implementation to obtain any temporary storage
necessary to perform the operation. Temporary allocations are always freed
before the completion handler is invoked. The executor is a cheaply copyable
object providing the algorithm used to invoke the completion handler. Unless
customized by the caller, a completion handler defaults to using
`std::allocator<void>` and the executor of the corresponding I/O object.

Networking prescribes facilities to determine the context in which
handlers run. Every I/O object refers to an __ExecutionContext__ for
obtaining the __Executor__ instance used to invoke completion handlers.
An executor determines where and how completion handlers are invoked.
Executors obtained from an instance of __io_context__ offer a basic guarantee:
handlers will only be invoked from threads which are currently calling
[@boost:/doc/html/boost_asio/reference/io_context/run/overload1.html `net::io_context::run`].

The __AsyncReadStream__ and __AsyncWriteStream__ concepts define requirements for
['asynchronous streams]:
a portable I/O abstraction that exchanges data asynchronously using buffer
sequences to represent bytes and `error_code` to report any failures. An
['asynchronous stream algorithm]
is written as a templated initiating function template accepting a stream
object meeting the named requirements for asynchronous reading, writing, or
both. This example shows an algorithm which writes some text to an
asynchronous stream:

[code_core_1_refresher_8]

[/-----------------------------------------------------------------------------]

[heading Concurrency]

I/O objects such as sockets and streams [*are not thread-safe]. Although
it is possible to have more than one operation outstanding (for example,
a simultaneous asynchronous read and asynchronous write) the stream object
itself may only be accessed from one thread at a time. This means that
member functions such as move constructors, destructors, or initiating
functions must not be called concurrently. Usually this is accomplished
with synchronization primitives such as a
[@https://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/thread/mutex `mutex`],
but concurrent network programs need a better way to access shared resources,
since acquiring ownership of a mutex could block threads from performing
uncontended work. For efficiency, networking adopts a model of using threads
without explicit locking by requiring all access to I/O objects to be
performed within a
[@boost:/doc/html/boost_asio/overview/core/strands.html ['strand]].

[/-----------------------------------------------------------------------------]

[heading Universal Model]

Because completion handlers cause an inversion of the flow of control,
sometimes other methods of attaching a continuation are desired. Networking
provides the
[@http://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg21/docs/papers/2013/n3747.pdf ['Universal Model for Asynchronous Operations]],
providing a customizable means for transforming the signature of the initiating
function to use other types of objects and methods in place of a completion
handler callback. For example to call to write a string to a socket
asynchronously, using a `std::future` to receive the number of bytes transferred
thusly looks like this:

[code_core_1_refresher_4s]

This functionality is enabled by passing the variable
[@boost:/doc/html/boost_asio/reference/use_future.html `net::use_future`]
(of type
[@boost:/doc/html/boost_asio/reference/use_future_t.html `net::use_future_t<>`])
in place of the completion handler. The same `async_write` function overload
can work with a
[@https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber_(computer_science) ['fiber]]
launched with
[@boost:/doc/html/boost_asio/reference/spawn/overload1.html `net::spawn`]:

[code_core_1_refresher_5s]

In both of these cases, an object with a specific type is used in place of
the completion handler, and the return value of the initiating function
is transformed from `void` to `std::future<std::size_t>` or `std::size_t`.
The handler is sometimes called a
__CompletionToken__
when used in this context. The return type transformation is supported by
customization points in the initiating function signature. Here is the
signature for
[@boost:/doc/html/boost_asio/reference/async_write/overload1.html `net::async_write`]:

[code_core_1_refresher_9]

The type of the function's return value is determined by the
[@boost:/doc/html/boost_asio/reference/async_result.html `net::async_result`]
customization point, which comes with specializations for common library
types such as `std::future` and may also be specialized for user-defined
types. The body of the initiating function calls the
[@boost:/doc/html/boost_asio/reference/async_inititate.html `net::async_initiate`]
helper to capture the arguments and forward them to the specialization of
`async_result`. An additional "initiation function" object is provided which
`async_result` may use to immediately launch the operation, or defer the launch
of the operation until some point in the future (this is called "lazy
execution"). The initiation function object receives the internal completion
handler which matches the signature expected by the initiating function:

[code_core_1_refresher_10]

This transformed, internal handler is responsible for the finalizing step that
delivers the result of the operation to the caller. For example, when using
`net::use_future` the internal handler will deliver the result by calling
[@https://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/thread/promise/set_value `std::promise::set_value`]
on the promise object returned by the initiating function.

[/-----------------------------------------------------------------------------]

[heading Using Networking]

Most library stream algorithms require a __socket__, __ssl_stream__, or
other __Stream__ object that has already established communication with
a remote peer. This example is provided as a reminder of how to work with
sockets:

[snippet_core_2]

Throughout this documentation identifiers with the following names have
special meaning:

[table Global Variables
[[Name][Description]]
[[
    [@boost:/doc/html/boost_asio/reference/io_context.html [*`ioc`]]
][
    A variable of type __io_context__ which is running on one separate thread,
    and upon which an __executor_work_guard__ object has been constructed.
]]
[[
    [@boost:/doc/html/boost_asio/reference/ip__tcp/socket.html [*`sock`]]
][
    A variable of type
    [@boost:/doc/html/boost_asio/reference/ip__tcp/socket.html `tcp::socket`]
    which has already been connected to a remote host.
]]
[[
    [@boost:/doc/html/boost_asio/reference/ssl__stream.html [*`ssl_sock`]]
][
    A variable of type
    [@boost:/doc/html/boost_asio/reference/ssl__stream.html `net::ssl::stream<tcp::socket>`]
    which is already connected and has handshaked with a remote host.
]]
[[
    [link beast.ref.boost__beast__websocket__stream [*`ws`]]
][
    A variable of type
    [link beast.ref.boost__beast__websocket__stream `websocket::stream<tcp::socket>`]
    which is already connected with a remote host.
]]
]

[endsect]
