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Security Javascript Object Signing and Encryption Internet-Draft This document updates RFC 7518 (JSON Web Algorithms (JWA)) to deprecate the JSON Web Signature (JWS) algorithm "none" and the JSON Web Encryption (JWE) algorithm "RSA1_5". These algorithms have known security weaknesses. It updates RFC 7519 (JSON Web Token (JWT)) so that these two algorithms are no longer mandatory to implement. It also updates the review instructions for Designated Experts to establish baseline security requirements that future algorithm registrations are expected to meet. About This Document The latest revision of this draft can be found at . Status information for this document may be found at . Discussion of this document takes place on the Javascript Object Signing and Encryption Working Group mailing list (), which is archived at . Subscribe at . Source for this draft and an issue tracker can be found at .

Introduction JSON Web Algorithms (JWA) introduced several standard algorithms for both JSON Web Signature (JWS) and JSON Web Encryption (JWE). Many of these algorithms have stood the test of time and are still in widespread use. However, some algorithms have proved to be difficult to implement correctly leading to exploitable vulnerabilities. This document deprecates two such algorithms:

• The JWS "none" algorithm, which indicates that no security is applied to the message at all.
• The JWE "RSA1_5" algorithm, which indicates RSA encryption using PKCS#1 version 1.5 (RSAES-PKCS1-v1_5 in ).

RSA signatures using PKCS#1 version 1.5 padding ("RS256", "RS384", and "RS512") are unchanged by this specification and can still be used. This document updates : it changes the implementation requirements of two algorithms () and adds to the review instructions for the JOSE Designated Experts (). It updates the review instructions (), to establish baseline security requirements for future JOSE algorithm registrations. Only algorithms that are reasonably assessed to satisfy these requirements are expected to be registered in the future. It also updates the implementations requirements of to no longer require either algorithm ().

Conventions and Definitions The key words "MUST", "MUST NOT", "REQUIRED", "SHALL", "SHALL NOT", "SHOULD", "SHOULD NOT", "RECOMMENDED", "NOT RECOMMENDED", "MAY", and "OPTIONAL" in this document are to be interpreted as described in BCP 14 when, and only when, they appear in all capitals, as shown here. This document uses terms defined in .

The 'none' algorithm The "none" algorithm creates an Unsecured JWS, whose contents are completely unsecured as the name implies. Despite strong guidance in to not accepting Unsecured JWS by default, many implementations have had serious bugs due to accepting this algorithm. In some cases, this has led to a complete loss of security as authenticity and integrity checking can be disabled by an adversary simply by changing the algorithm ("alg") header in the JWS. For example, tracks public vulnerabilities due to implementations mistakenly accepting the "none" algorithm. As of October 2026 it lists 19 reports, many of which have high or critical impact ratings. Although there are some historical uses for Unsecured JWS that are not security vulnerabilities, these are relatively few and can easily be satisfied by alternative means. For example, two of these are in OpenID Connect : (1) securing unsigned ID Tokens (as allowed in Section 2) via transmission over TLS in Section 3.1.3.7 and (2) the use of unsigned request objects in Section 6.1. The small risk of breaking some of these uses is far outweighed by the improvement in security for the majority of JWS users who may be impacted by accidental acceptance of the "none" algorithm.

The 'RSA1_5' algorithm The "RSA1_5" algorithm implements RSA encryption using PKCS#1 version 1.5 padding (). This padding mode has long been known to have security issues, since at least Bleichenbacher's attack () in 1998. It was supported in JWE due to the wide deployment of this algorithm, especially in legacy hardware. However, more secure replacements such as OAEP or elliptic curve encryption algorithms are widely available since then. US National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has disallowed the use of this encryption mode for federal use since the end of 2023 and a CFRG document also deprecates this encryption mode for new protocols and deployments. This document therefore also deprecates this algorithm for JWE.

Guidance on Deprecation Both of the algorithms listed above are deprecated for use in JOSE: the "none" algorithm for JWS, and "RSA1_5" for JWE. JOSE library developers should deprecate support for these algorithms and should not enable them by default. Application developers must disable support for these algorithms by default. Consistent with the existing requirement in that implementations "MUST NOT accept Unsecured JWSs by default", an application that has a specific need for one of these algorithms may enable it, but only for the specific objects or operations that require it and not at a global level. New specifications building on top of JOSE, including revisions of existing specifications, must not allow the use of either algorithm, including for the uses of "none" described in . The IANA algorithm registry distinguishes between algorithms that are "Deprecated" and those that are "Prohibited" (). The algorithms identified in this document are to be marked as Deprecated only; the requirements in this section apply in addition to that definition. Existing specifications and applications that make use of these algorithms can continue to do so, but are encouraged to adopt alternatives in future updates.

Updated Implementation Requirements for JSON Web Token (JWT) says that '"none" MUST be implemented by conforming JWT implementations', and that "RSA1_5" must be implemented by JWT implementations providing encryption capabilities. This document updates to remove both requirements: "none" and "RSA1_5" are no longer mandatory to implement for conforming JWT implementations. JWT implementors should deprecate support for both algorithms as described in .

Security Considerations This entire document is concerned with security, since the security of JOSE implementations directly affects the security of systems that include them (see for example the referenced vulnerabilities in ). Both algorithms remain registered, and permits an application to enable either of them for specific objects or operations. Wherever they are enabled, the exposures described in and remain; see Sections and of and Sections and of for existing considerations and mitigations.

IANA Considerations

JOSE Algorithm Deprecations The following changes are to be made to the IANA "JSON Web Signature and Encryption Algorithms" registry under "JSON Object Signing and Encryption (JOSE)" registry group :

• For the entry with Algorithm Name "none", update the JOSE Implementation Requirements to "Deprecated".
• For the entry with Algorithm Name "RSA1_5", update the JOSE Implementation Requirements to "Deprecated". Add to the Algorithm Analysis Document(s) column.
• For both entries, update the Reference column to also list this document.

Updated Review Instructions for Designated Experts The review instructions for the Designated Experts (DEs) for the IANA "JSON Web Signature and Encryption Algorithms" registry in are updated to add the following review criteria. As with the existing criteria in , these criteria do not apply to algorithms being registered as Deprecated or Prohibited. These criteria do not apply to changes in the implementation requirements of existing algorithm registrations, only to new registrations. These criteria are in addition to the one added to the same instructions by . The following bullet points are added to the instructions for DEs, after the third paragraph of :

• For JWS signature and MAC algorithms (the "alg" parameter values used with JWS), only algorithms that are reasonably considered to meet the standard security goal of existential unforgeability under a chosen message attack (EUF-CMA) are to be considered for approval. See textbooks such as Section 13.1.1 of for a definition of existential unforgeability.
• For JWE key management algorithms (the "alg" parameter values used with JWE), only algorithms for which the resulting JWE encryption process as a whole is reasonably considered to meet the standard security goal of indistinguishability under an adaptive chosen ciphertext attack (IND-CCA2) are to be considered for approval. This goal applies to the entire JWE encryption process and not to the key management algorithm in isolation. See textbooks such as Section 9.2.2 and Chapter 12 of .
• For JWE content encryption methods (the "enc" parameter values used with JWE), only algorithms that are reasonably believed to meet the standard security goal of authenticated encryption with associated data (AEAD) are to be considered for approval. See , and textbooks such as Section 9.5 of , for the definition of AEAD security.

Additional Reference for JOSE Registry Group This document requests IANA to add this document as an additional reference to the "JSON Web Signature and Encryption Algorithms" registry under "JSON Object Signing and Encryption (JOSE)" registry group.

References Normative References This specification registers cryptographic algorithms and identifiers to be used with the JSON Web Signature (JWS), JSON Web Encryption (JWE), and JSON Web Key (JWK) specifications. It defines several IANA registries for these identifiers. JSON Web Token (JWT) is a compact, URL-safe means of representing claims to be transferred between two parties. The claims in a JWT are encoded as a JSON object that is used as the payload of a JSON Web Signature (JWS) structure or as the plaintext of a JSON Web Encryption (JWE) structure, enabling the claims to be digitally signed or integrity protected with a Message Authentication Code (MAC) and/or encrypted. This document defines algorithms for Authenticated Encryption with Associated Data (AEAD), and defines a uniform interface and a registry for such algorithms. The interface and registry can be used as an application-independent set of cryptoalgorithm suites. This approach provides advantages in efficiency and security, and promotes the reuse of crypto implementations. [STANDARDS-TRACK] This specification refers to cryptographic algorithm identifiers that fully specify the cryptographic operations to be performed, including any curve, key derivation function (KDF), and hash functions, as being "fully specified". It refers to cryptographic algorithm identifiers that require additional information beyond the algorithm identifier to determine the cryptographic operations to be performed as being "polymorphic". This specification creates fully-specified algorithm identifiers for registered JSON Object Signing and Encryption (JOSE) and CBOR Object Signing and Encryption (COSE) polymorphic algorithm identifiers, enabling applications to use only fully-specified algorithm identifiers. It deprecates those polymorphic algorithm identifiers. This specification updates RFCs 7518, 8037, and 9053. It deprecates polymorphic algorithms defined by RFCs 8037 and 9053 and provides fully-specified replacements for them. It adds to the instructions to designated experts in RFCs 7518 and 9053. In many standards track documents several words are used to signify the requirements in the specification. These words are often capitalized. This document defines these words as they should be interpreted in IETF documents. This document specifies an Internet Best Current Practices for the Internet Community, and requests discussion and suggestions for improvements. RFC 2119 specifies common key words that may be used in protocol specifications. This document aims to reduce the ambiguity by clarifying that only UPPERCASE usage of the key words have the defined special meanings. JSON Web Signature (JWS) represents content secured with digital signatures or Message Authentication Codes (MACs) using JSON-based data structures. Cryptographic algorithms and identifiers for use with this specification are described in the separate JSON Web Algorithms (JWA) specification and an IANA registry defined by that specification. Related encryption capabilities are described in the separate JSON Web Encryption (JWE) specification. Informative References This memo describes a strategy for resisting the Million Message Attack. This memo provides information for the Internet community. JSON Web Encryption (JWE) represents encrypted content using JSON-based data structures. Cryptographic algorithms and identifiers for use with this specification are described in the separate JSON Web Algorithms (JWA) specification and IANA registries defined by that specification. Related digital signature and Message Authentication Code (MAC) capabilities are described in the separate JSON Web Signature (JWS) specification. Independent Self-Issued Consulting JSON Web Tokens, also known as JWTs, are URL-safe JSON-based security tokens that contain a set of claims that can be signed and/or encrypted. JWTs are being widely used and deployed as a simple security token format in numerous protocols and applications, both in the area of digital identity and in other application areas. This Best Current Practices (BCP) specification updates RFC 7519 to provide actionable guidance leading to secure implementation and deployment of JWTs. This BCP specification furthermore obsoletes RFC 8725 to provide additional actionable guidance covering threats and attacks that have been discovered since RFC 8725 was published. This document provides recommendations for the implementation of public-key cryptography based on the RSA algorithm, covering cryptographic primitives, encryption schemes, signature schemes with appendix, and ASN.1 syntax for representing keys and for identifying the schemes. This document represents a republication of PKCS #1 v2.2 from RSA Laboratories' Public-Key Cryptography Standards (PKCS) series. By publishing this RFC, change control is transferred to the IETF. This document also obsoletes RFC 3447. Red Hat, Inc. This document lists additions to RFC 8017. Specifically, it provides guidance to implementers of the standard to protect against side- channel attacks. It also recommends against the RSAES-PKCS-v1_5 encryption scheme, and provides an alternative depadding algorithm that protects against side-channel attacks raising from users of vulnerable APIs. The purpose of this specification is to increase security of RSA implementations. The document is a product of the Crypto Forum Research Group (CFRG). National Institute of Standards and Technology IANA

Acknowledgments The author would like to thank the following people for feedback and useful suggestions: Mike Ounsworth, Michael B. Jones, Yaron Sheffer, Brian Campbell, Aaron Parecki, Filip Skokan, Tim Bray, John Mattsson, Deb Cooley, Karen O'Donoghue, and Barry Leiba.